Teacher's Guide to the Montgomery Bus Boycott

📚 Why This Guide? The Stories We Haven't Heard

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The bus on which Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat, sparking the Montgomery Bus Boycott, a U.S. civil rights landmark.

Most students learn about Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott. That's an important story—but it's not the complete story. Many brave women stood up for justice before Rosa Parks, and the boycott succeeded not just because of moral courage, but because of strategic economic action.

This guide will help you teach:

The story of Sarah Keys Evans (1952) - whose legal victory came 3 years before Rosa Parks
The courage of Claudette Colvin (1955) - who at age 15 refused to move 9 months before Rosa Parks
How economic boycotts forced white business owners to support integration
The many other women whose names are rarely mentioned
How movements succeed through organized, sustained action—not just individual acts

Why These Stories Matter

Understanding the full history helps students see:

Young people can make history - Claudette Colvin was only 15
Change requires many people - Not just famous individuals
Strategy matters - The boycott worked because it hurt businesses economically
Legal victories take time - Sarah Keys Evans won her case in 1955, but it wasn't enforced until 1961
Women led the movement - The Women's Political Council organized the boycott

🎖️ Sarah Keys Evans (1952): Three Years Before Rosa Parks

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Private First Class Sarah Louise Keys in her Women's Army Corps uniform, 1952

August 1, 1952 - A Soldier Stands Her Ground

Who: Private First Class Sarah Louise Keys, age 22

Service: Women's Army Corps (WAC) at Fort Dix, New Jersey

What Happened: Traveling home to Washington, North Carolina, on leave, dressed in full military uniform

The Incident: At a bus stop in Roanoke Rapids, NC (just after midnight), a new driver ordered her to give up her seat to a white Marine and move to the back of the bus

Her Response: She refused. She knew that on interstate buses, she had the legal right to stay in her seat

📹 Video: The Story of Sarah Keys Evans

Watch this powerful Veterans Day message from the U.S. Army's First Army, featuring Sarah Keys Evans telling her story in her own words at age 92.

[h5p id="131"]

Video length: Approximately 6 minutes | Suitable for grades 3-5 with teacher guidance

What Happened Next

That Night:

The driver emptied the entire bus
All other passengers boarded a different bus
Sarah Keys was left alone on the empty bus
Two police officers arrested her
She spent 13 hours in a jail cell so filthy she was afraid to sit down, so she stood all night in her uniform and 1.5-inch heels
When she asked to call her family, police said they would call—but they never did. Her parents were frantic

The Legal Battle

Sarah Keys initially wanted to forget the whole thing, but her father urged her to fight for what was right. The NAACP connected her with two brilliant young lawyers:

Her Legal Team: Dovey Johnson Roundtree & Julius Winfield Robertson

Dovey Johnson Roundtree was a former WAC officer who had experienced a similar incident in Miami, Florida in 1943. She made Sarah Keys' case her personal mission.

The Strategy: They brought the case before the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), arguing that the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 forbid segregation on buses traveling across state lines.

The Landmark Victory: Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company

November 7, 1955: The ICC ruled in favor of Sarah Keys Evans, declaring:

"We conclude that the assignment of seats in interstate buses, so designated as to imply the inherent inferiority of a traveler solely because of race or color, must be regarded as subjecting the traveler to unjust discrimination, and undue and unreasonable prejudice and disadvantage."

This was the first explicit rejection of "separate but equal" for transportation.

The Problem: Ruling vs. Reality

Sarah Keys won her case—but the ICC didn't enforce it. Southern bus companies continued segregating passengers. It wasn't until the 1961 Freedom Rides—when activists were violently attacked on buses—that the government finally forced bus companies to comply.

Teaching Point: Winning in court doesn't automatically change society. It takes continued activism and pressure to enforce legal victories.

Why We Don't Know Her Name

Despite this historic victory, Sarah Keys Evans chose to stay out of the spotlight. Reliving the traumatic experience became too emotionally exhausting. When author Amy Nathan tried to publish her story in the early 2000s, publishers said they already had books about Rosa Parks, or that Sarah Keys wasn't famous enough.

But her contribution was crucial: Her case provided the legal precedent that made the Freedom Rides possible and helped desegregate interstate bus travel.

✊🏿 Claudette Colvin (1955): A Teenager Who Would Not Be Moved

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Portrait of teenage Claudette Colvin wearing glasses and smiling, circa 1955

Claudette Colvin, age 15, around the time of her arrest in March 1955

March 2, 1955 - Nine Months Before Rosa Parks

Who: Claudette Colvin, age 15, high school student

School: Booker T. Washington High School, Montgomery, Alabama

Context: Just days after Black History Month, Claudette's class had discussed injustices under Jim Crow laws

What Happened: On her way home from school, several white passengers boarded the bus. The driver ordered Claudette and three other Black passengers to give up their seats

Her Response: Three passengers moved. Claudette stayed seated.

In Her Own Words

"I felt like Sojourner Truth was pushing down on one shoulder and Harriet Tubman was pushing down on the other—saying, 'Sit down girl!' I was glued to my seat... It felt as though Harriet Tubman's hands were pushing me down on one shoulder and Sojourner Truth's hands were pushing me down on the other shoulder."

- Claudette Colvin

The Arrest

Two police officers arrived and forcibly removed Claudette from the bus:

She was handcuffed and arrested
Charged with violating segregation laws, disorderly conduct, and assaulting a police officer
Taken to an adult jail (not juvenile detention)
Her classmates from Booker T. Washington High School witnessed her arrest and supported her
Rosa Parks, who mentored Claudette through the NAACP Youth Council, raised money for her defense

Why Claudette Wasn't Chosen as the Face of the Movement

Civil rights leaders faced a difficult decision. They wanted to challenge bus segregation, but they worried about public perception. Here's what happened:

The Concerns:

Age: Claudette was only 15—leaders worried she was too young
Pregnancy: Later in 1955, Claudette became pregnant out of wedlock
Appearance: Claudette herself noted she had darker skin, which leaders feared would hurt public sympathy
Temperament: Claudette was described as "emotional" and "feisty"—leaders wanted someone who seemed calm and dignified

The Reality: An older generation of Black Southerners, taught to stay silent in the face of oppression, feared that a young, pregnant, dark-skinned girl wouldn't generate the sympathy needed to win public support.

But Claudette Got Her Day in Court

On February 1, 1956, civil rights attorney Fred Gray filed Browder v. Gayle, a federal case to challenge bus segregation in Montgomery. Claudette Colvin was one of four Black women plaintiffs (along with Aurelia Browder, Susie McDonald, and Mary Louise Smith).

June 13, 1956: A three-judge federal panel ruled that Alabama's bus segregation laws were unconstitutional.

This legal victory—not Rosa Parks' arrest—is what actually ended bus segregation in Montgomery.

Recognition Decades Later

Finally Honored:

2017: Montgomery City Council passed a resolution declaring March 2 "Claudette Colvin Day"
2021: A judge expunged her juvenile record, stating her refusal "has been recognized as a courageous act on her behalf and on behalf of a community of affected people"
2021: A mural honoring Colvin was unveiled on Claudette Colvin Drive in Montgomery
January 13, 2026: Claudette Colvin passed away at age 86 in Texas

Montgomery Mayor Steven Reed said: "Claudette Colvin's life reminds us that movements are built not only by those whose names are most familiar, but by those whose courage comes early, quietly, and at great personal cost."

👤 Rosa Parks: Building on the Foundation

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Rosa Parks being fingerprinted by Deputy Sheriff D.H. Lackey after being arrested on February 22, 1956, during the Montgomery bus boycott

The Real Rosa Parks

Rosa Parks was not just a tired seamstress who accidentally sparked a movement. She was:

A Trained Activist

NAACP Secretary: Secretary of the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP
Youth Mentor: Advisor to the NAACP Youth Council, where she mentored Claudette Colvin
Activist Training: Had attended civil rights training at the Highlander Folk School
Previous Resistance: Had refused to comply with bus segregation laws before, including a 1943 incident
Fundraiser: Raised money for Claudette Colvin's legal defense

December 1, 1955: A Strategic Decision

What Actually Happened:

Rosa Parks boarded a bus after work
She sat in the first row of the "colored section" (not the "white section" as is often misreported)
When the white section filled up, the driver ordered her and three other Black passengers to move
The other three passengers moved; Rosa Parks stayed seated
She was arrested and charged with violating segregation laws

Why Rosa Parks?

Civil rights leaders chose Rosa Parks to be the face of the boycott because:

Age and Experience: She was 42, married, employed, and well-respected
Character: Martin Luther King Jr. said "her character was impeccable and her dedication deep-rooted"
Community Respect: She was "one of the most respected people in the Negro community"
Training: She understood nonviolent resistance and the goals of the movement

Teaching Point: Rosa Parks' arrest was not spontaneous—it was a strategic act by a trained activist that civil rights leaders had been waiting for. Her story is important, but understanding her as part of a larger, organized movement gives students a more accurate understanding of how change happens.

💰 The Economic Boycott: How the Movement Actually Won

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The Strategy: Hit Them Where It Hurts

The conventional narrative says that white Americans saw violent attacks on peaceful Black protesters and, outraged, demanded change. That's not what actually happened.

The Real Story: The boycott succeeded because it cost white business owners money. When businesses lost enough revenue, they pressured politicians to end segregation.

As Martin Luther King Jr. explained: "The political power structure listens to the economic power structure."

The Montgomery Bus Boycott: By the Numbers

The Impact:

Duration: 381 days (December 5, 1955 - December 20, 1956)
Participation: Over 90% of Montgomery's Black community
African Americans' Share of Bus Riders: 75% of passengers
Daily Lost Revenue: Montgomery City Lines lost 30,000-40,000 bus fares each day
Financial Crisis: The bus company suffered massive financial losses

How the Community Organized

The Women's Political Council (WPC)

Led by Jo Ann Robinson, a professor at Alabama State College, the WPC had been planning a bus boycott for years. When Rosa Parks was arrested, Robinson acted immediately:

The night of Parks' arrest, Robinson and the WPC printed 52,500 leaflets calling for a boycott
They distributed them throughout the Black community overnight
They coordinated with churches and community organizations
They created the infrastructure for the boycott before it even started

The Carpool System

For 381 days, Montgomery's Black community refused to ride city buses. Instead:

Over 200 people volunteered their cars for a carpool system
Roughly 100 pickup stations operated throughout the city
Churches donated station wagons as "rolling taxis"
The Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) organized everything
Mass meetings at Black churches raised money and kept people informed
Many people walked to work—some as far as 8 miles each day

One elderly woman, asked if she was tired of walking, replied: "My soul has been tired for a long time. Now my feet are tired, and my soul is resting."

Economic Impact Beyond Buses

The boycott hurt more than just the bus company:

Downtown businesses lost Black customers
Black domestic workers who used buses couldn't get to white families' homes
The entire local economy suffered
White business owners realized segregation was costing them money

The Lesson: Economic Power Forces Change

The boycott worked because it disrupted business interests. White business owners—who had political power—decided to end segregation not because they had a moral awakening, but because segregation was bad for business.

📈 Birmingham, Greenwood, Nashville: The Pattern Continues

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The Strategy Worked Across the South

Economic boycotts became a "devastatingly effective" tool (as Time magazine reported in 1963) throughout the Civil Rights Movement.

Birmingham, Alabama (1963)

The Boycott: Five weeks of boycotts, sit-ins, and marches targeting downtown businesses

Financial Impact: Businesses lost millions in sales

The Turning Point: Real estate tycoon Sidney Smyer, a staunch racist, led white business owners to support integration

His Reason: "I'm still a segregationist, but I'm not a damn fool."

The Result: Business leaders forced politicians, judges, and police to integrate

Greenwood, Mississippi (1964)

The Boycott: 20-month boycott of downtown businesses by Black shoppers

The Result: Brought legal changes to the city's hiring practices

Nashville, Tennessee

The Strategy: Coordinated boycotts and sit-ins at lunch counters and stores

The Result: Downtown businesses desegregated to stop losing money

What Business Week Reported (1960)

By 1960, civil rights organizers were widely embracing this "economic weapon to fight segregation." The magazine noted that boycotts were forcing white business owners and government officials to desegregate across the South.

How the Civil Rights Act of 1964 Passed

The Birmingham boycott and other protests in 1963 led directly to the Civil Rights Act:

Spring 1963: Birmingham boycott causes massive disruption
Summer 1963: Over 2,000 Black protests occur in 40 states
June 1963: President Kennedy proposes civil rights legislation (28 months into his presidency)
Kennedy's Admission: The boycotts and protests "had made the executive branch act faster and were now forcing Congress to entertain legislation"
July 2, 1964: President Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act into law

The Lesson: Major legislative reform requires mass disruption outside the electoral and legislative spheres. Without sustained economic pressure, it's very difficult to win laws that affect entrenched power-holders.

🏫 Teaching About the Montgomery Bus Boycott: Cultural Sensitivity

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✅ DO:

Teach about multiple women who refused to give up their seats
Emphasize the organized nature of the movement
Explain the economic strategy behind the boycott
Show how young people like Claudette Colvin made history
Discuss the role of the Women's Political Council
Acknowledge that winning in court doesn't automatically create change
Connect to present-day economic boycotts and protests
Celebrate collective action, not just individual heroes

❌ DON'T:

Present Rosa Parks as a "tired seamstress" who accidentally started a movement
Ignore Sarah Keys Evans and Claudette Colvin
Suggest that white people's moral outrage ended segregation
Skip the economic strategy—this is how the movement actually won
Imply that one person can change everything alone
Forget to mention the Women's Political Council
Present the movement as ancient history unconnected to today

Age-Appropriate Framing

Grades K-2:

Focus: "Many brave women stood up for fairness on buses"
Concepts: Fairness, courage, helping each other
Stories: Simplified versions of Rosa Parks, Claudette Colvin
Activity: "How do people work together to solve problems?"
Emphasize: People walked to work, shared car rides, helped each other

Grades 3-4:

Introduce: All three women—Sarah Keys Evans, Claudette Colvin, Rosa Parks
Explain: Simple version of economic boycott—"People stopped riding buses, so the bus company lost money"
Discuss: Why different women's stories are remembered differently
Activity: Create a timeline showing all three women
Critical Thinking: "Why did the boycott work?"

Grade 5:

Full Context: Teach the complete economic strategy
Legal Cases: Explain Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company and Browder v. Gayle
Analysis: Compare how different boycotts across the South used the same strategy
Connections: Link to the Civil Rights Act of 1964
Primary Sources: Read speeches, leaflets from the boycott
Critical Discussion: "How do movements force change? Why does economic pressure work?"

👥 Other Women Who Resisted Bus Segregation

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Many More Women Stood Up

Sarah Keys Evans, Claudette Colvin, and Rosa Parks were part of a long tradition of Black women resisting transportation segregation. Here are others whose names deserve to be remembered:

Mary Louise Smith (October 1955, Montgomery)

Age: 18 years old

What Happened: Seven months after Claudette Colvin, Mary Louise Smith refused to yield her seat to a white passenger

Legal Action: She became one of the four plaintiffs in Browder v. Gayle alongside Claudette Colvin

Aurelia Browder (Montgomery, 1955)

The Lead Plaintiff: The landmark case Browder v. Gayle was named after her

Her Role: Challenged bus segregation laws in federal court

Susie McDonald (Montgomery, 1955)

Another Plaintiff: Fourth plaintiff in Browder v. Gayle

Significance: These four women's case is what actually made bus segregation unconstitutional

Irene Morgan (Virginia, 1944)

The Case: Morgan v. Virginia (1946)

Victory: Supreme Court ruled that segregation on interstate buses was unconstitutional

Problem: Like Sarah Keys' case, this ruling wasn't enforced

Dovey Johnson Roundtree (Miami, 1943)

Who She Was: WAC recruiter and later Sarah Keys Evans' lawyer

Her Experience: Evicted from a Miami bus in an incident nearly identical to Sarah Keys'

Her Mission: This personal experience drove her to take Sarah Keys' case

A Long History of Resistance

Teaching Point: The Montgomery Bus Boycott didn't happen in isolation. For decades, Black women had been resisting transportation segregation. Each act of resistance built on the previous ones, creating the foundation for the organized movement that finally succeeded.

🎨 Cross-Curricular Activity Ideas

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Language Arts

Comparative Biography: Compare and contrast Sarah Keys Evans, Claudette Colvin, and Rosa Parks
Letter Writing: Write a letter as a Montgomery resident explaining why you're participating in the boycott
Perspective Writing: Write from different viewpoints (boycotter, bus company owner, white business owner)
Poetry: Write poems about courage, justice, or walking to work
Research: Why are some historical figures more famous than others?

Math & Economics

Calculate Lost Revenue: If buses lost 30,000-40,000 fares/day, how much over 381 days?
Percentages: If 75% of riders were Black and 90% boycotted, what percentage of riders did buses lose?
Distance: If someone walked 8 miles to work each day for 381 days, how far did they walk total?
Graphs: Create graphs showing bus company revenue over the boycott period
Budgeting: How much money did the carpool system need? How did churches fundraise?

Social Studies

Timeline: Create a timeline from Sarah Keys Evans (1952) through the Civil Rights Act (1964)
Geography: Map where boycotts occurred across the South
Civics: How do court cases work? Explain Browder v. Gayle
Economics: How do boycotts work? Why does economic pressure force change?
Current Events: What modern boycotts or protests use similar strategies?

Art

Portrait Project: Create artwork honoring Sarah Keys Evans, Claudette Colvin, and other forgotten heroes
Historical Poster: Design leaflets like the ones the Women's Political Council distributed
Mural: Create a class mural showing the boycott's carpool system

💬 Discussion Questions by Grade Level

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K-2nd Grade:

"What does it mean to be brave?"
"How did people help each other during the bus boycott?"
"Why is it important to treat everyone fairly?"
"How can many people working together make change happen?"

3rd-4th Grade:

"Why do we remember Rosa Parks but not Sarah Keys Evans or Claudette Colvin?"
"Was it fair that civil rights leaders chose Rosa Parks instead of Claudette Colvin? Why or why not?"
"How did refusing to ride buses help end segregation?"
"What does it mean that Sarah Keys won her court case but it wasn't enforced?"
"How did young people like Claudette Colvin help the Civil Rights Movement?"

5th Grade:

"How did economic pressure force white business owners to support integration?"
"Why wasn't moral outrage enough to end segregation—why did money matter?"
"Compare the strategies used in Montgomery, Birmingham, and Greenwood. What was similar?"
"How did the Montgomery Bus Boycott help lead to the Civil Rights Act of 1964?"
"What can we learn from these stories about how to create change today?"
"Why is it important to tell the complete story, not just the most famous parts?"
"What role did women play in organizing and sustaining the boycott?"

📚 Recommended Books and Resources

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About Sarah Keys Evans:

"Take a Seat—Make a Stand: A Hero in the Family" by Amy Nathan and Sarah Keys Evans (self-published children's book)
"Riding into History: The Surprising Story of Sarah Keys Evans and the Fight to Desegregate Bus Travel" by Amy Nathan (2026 - for older readers and teachers)
"Justice Older Than the Law: The Life of Dovey Johnson Roundtree" by Katie McCabe and Dovey Johnson Roundtree (biography of Sarah Keys' lawyer)

About Claudette Colvin:

"Claudette Colvin: Twice Toward Justice" by Phillip Hoose (2010, ages 10+) - National Book Award winner
"Claudette Colvin: The Original Rosa Parks" by Fred Gray (Colvin's lawyer)

About Rosa Parks (Beyond the Myth):

"The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks" by Jeanne Theoharis (2013)
"The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks: Young Readers Edition" by Jeanne Theoharis and Brandy Colbert (2021)
"On the Bus with Rosa Parks" by Rita Dove (poetry collection)

About the Montgomery Bus Boycott:

"Freedom's Daughters: The Unsung Heroines of the Civil Rights Movement from 1830 to 1970" by Lynne Olson
"This Little Light of Mine: The Life of Fannie Lou Hamer" by Kay Mills
"Traveling Black: A Story of Race and Resistance" by Mia Bay (2021 - history of transportation protests)

About Economic Boycotts:

"Right to Ride: Streetcar Boycotts and African American Citizenship" by Blair LM Kelley (2010)
Article: "Black economic boycotts of the civil rights era still offer lessons on how to achieve a just society" by Kevin A. Young, The Conversation (2024)

Online Resources:

Zinn Education Project: Teaching resources about Sarah Keys Evans and Claudette Colvin
National Park Service: Montgomery Bus Boycott resources
Library of Congress: Primary sources from the Civil Rights Movement
Stanford University's Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute: Montgomery Bus Boycott materials

⭐ Key Takeaways for Teachers

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                        Multiple Heroes: Sarah Keys Evans (1952), Claudette Colvin (1955), Rosa Parks (1955), and many other women all contributed to ending bus segregation. Each built on the previous person's courage.
Youth Activism: Claudette Colvin was only 15 when she refused to move. Young people can and do make history.
Organized Movement: The boycott succeeded because of careful organization by the Women's Political Council, churches, and community leaders—not because of one person's spontaneous act.
Economic Power: The boycott worked because it cost white business owners money. Economic pressure forced them to support integration.
Legal vs. Real Change: Sarah Keys won her case in 1955, but it wasn't enforced until 1961. Winning in court doesn't automatically change society—continued pressure is needed.
Women's Leadership: Women organized, sustained, and led the boycott. Jo Ann Robinson and the Women's Political Council were crucial.
Collective Action: The boycott lasted 381 days because 90% of Montgomery's Black community participated. Individual courage + collective action = change.
Strategy Matters: Understanding how and why the boycott worked helps students see that social change requires strategic, sustained action—not just moral appeals.

                    

📝 Citations and References

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Primary Source Articles:

Young, K. A. (2024, June 27). Black economic boycotts of the civil rights era still offer lessons on how to achieve a just society. The Conversation. Retrieved from https://theconversation.com/black-economic-boycotts-of-the-civil-rights-era-still-offer-lessons-on-how-to-achieve-a-just-society-228057

About Sarah Keys Evans:

Zinn Education Project: "Aug. 1, 1952: Sarah Keys Refuses to Give Up Her Seat on a Bus"
TIME Magazine (2020): "Years Before Rosa Parks, Sarah Keys Refused to Give Up Her Seat on a Bus"
NCpedia: "Keys, Sarah"
Wikipedia: "Keys v. Carolina Coach Co."
America Comes Alive: "Sarah Keys Evans: Taking a Stand for Civil Rights"
Carolina Public Humanities: "Keeping Your Seat to Take a Stand: Sarah Keys Evans & the Fight Against Jim Crow Transportation"
Nathan, Amy (forthcoming 2026). Riding into History: The Surprising Story of Sarah Keys Evans and the Fight to Desegregate Bus Travel. Duke University Press.

About Claudette Colvin:

Wikipedia: "Claudette Colvin"
National Geographic: "Claudette Colvin refused to give up her seat on a segregated bus—before Rosa Parks"
NPR (2009): "Before Rosa Parks, There Was Claudette Colvin"
AARP (2026): "Civil Rights Pioneer Claudette Colvin Dies"
Zinn Education Project: "March 2, 1955: Claudette Colvin Refuses to Give Up Her Bus Seat"
HISTORY: "15-year-old Claudette Colvin refuses to give up her seat"
Americans Who Tell The Truth: "Claudette Colvin"
Hoose, Phillip (2010). Claudette Colvin: Twice Toward Justice. Melanie Kroupa Books.

About the Montgomery Bus Boycott:

National Women's History Museum: "Montgomery Bus Boycott"
U.S. National Park Service: "The Montgomery Bus Boycott"
Stanford University's Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute: "Montgomery Bus Boycott"

Historical Context:

Theoharis, Jeanne (2013). The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks. Beacon Press.
Kelley, Blair LM (2010). Right to Ride: Streetcar Boycotts and African American Citizenship in the Era of Plessy v. Ferguson. University of North Carolina Press.
Bay, Mia (2021). Traveling Black: A Story of Race and Resistance. Harvard University Press.